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Written by the influential Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza, the Tractatus Theologico-Politicus stands as one of the most provocative texts of the early modern era. This treatise serves as a preemptive defense of his later work, Ethics, which was published posthumously in 1677 and anticipated intense scrutiny. In this foundational work, Spinoza delivers his most thorough critique of Judaism and organized religion as a whole. He asserts that theology and philosophy must be distinctly separated, especially when interpreting sacred texts. While theology seeks obedience, philosophy is driven by ...

Benedict de Spinoza's Ethics, first published in 1677, constitutes a major systematic critique of the traditional and religious foundations of philosophical thought. In it, Spinoza follows a logical step-by-step format consisting of definitions, axioms, propositions, proofs, and corollaries to create a comprehensive inquiry into the truth about God, nature, and humans' place within the universe. From these broad metaphysical themes, Spinoza derives what he considered to be the highest principles of religion and society and lays out an ethical system in which reason is the supreme value.