Identifying Cause and Effect

Learning Objective: Recognize cause-and-effect relationships in a text and the signal words that introduce them.

A cause is the reason something happens, and an effect is the result. Many texts explain events by showing this chain: something happens (a cause), and because of it, something else happens (an effect). A single cause can have several effects, and a chain of causes and effects can also build on one another.

Authors use specific words to signal cause and effect. Words like because, since, and due to usually introduce a cause. Words like as a result, therefore, consequently, and so usually introduce an effect. Noticing these words helps readers understand why events happen, not just what happens.

To check your understanding, try asking "why did this happen?" (to find the cause) or "what happened because of this?" (to find the effect) as you read.

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Understanding Sequence and Chronological Order

Learning Objective: Recognize the order of events in a text using time-order signal words.

Many texts — stories, instructions, and biographies — are organized in chronological order, meaning events are presented in the order they happened. Recognizing this structure helps readers follow what happened and understand how one event led to the next.

Authors use signal words to help readers track the sequence: first, second, next, then, after that, meanwhile, eventually, and finally are common examples. Dates and time expressions ("three years later," "that morning," "in 2020") also show sequence.

When you read a sequence-based text, it can help to make a simple timeline or numbered list of the main events as you read. This makes it easier to summarize the passage and answer questions about what happened before or after a specific event.

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Making Inferences

Learning Objective: Use text clues and background knowledge to draw logical conclusions about information the author does not state directly.

An inference is a logical guess based on evidence in the text, combined with what you already know about the world. Authors do not always state every fact directly; instead, they give readers clues and expect the reader to "read between the lines."

To make a strong inference, look for specific details — actions, descriptions, and word choices — that suggest a feeling, situation, or outcome. Then combine those clues with your own experience or knowledge. For example, if a character's hand is described as "shaking" while answering the phone, this suggests fear or worry, even if the word "afraid" never appears.

A good inference is supported by evidence from the text. If someone asks, "How do you know that?" you should be able to point to specific words or details that led you to your conclusion.

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