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In times of turmoil, the American people often turn to the president of the US for clarification. One such time of turmoil came during the Spanish occupation of Cuba, when growing resentment toward the Spanish-fueled pro-Cuban sentiments on domestic soil. Opting to take a more neutral standpoint, President Cleveland said that Americans were to remain neutral during this time of crisis in his historic address. Refusing to aid the Cuban resurgents in any way, he instead focused on the state of the nation over the interests of Cuba.

Hippocrates revolutionized the study of medicine in Ancient Greece, but some of his ideas still influence the medical field today. In his book On Ulcers, Hippocrates details the recommended treatment for this ailment. While modern medicine has moved beyond using honey, boiled leaves, and white wine to treat ulcers, Hippocrates’ advice on diet and rest hold true. This text is fascinating for anyone interested in the historical development of medical practices.

In 1882, Congress passed a law that criminalized polygamy. Emmeline Wells, a staunch defender of plural marriage, gave this speech in 1883. In it, she addresses the popular opinion that polygamy is an act that keeps ignorant Mormon women “in bondage.” She provides a counter argument, describing how Mormon women consider their choices carefully, and that those who do agree to a polygamous marriage “are like other good, pure, virtuous women, industrially, morally and intellectually.”

Pelopidas started out a hero to the people, being born under a noble family and making a name for himself as an athlete. But as Plutarch describes in Pelopidas’ chapter of Parallel Lives, there was a lot more to this man than could be seen. Being very generous with his wealth to the less fortunate of the town, Pelopidas also went on to lead the army. By the end of his life, his patriotism did not go unnoticed - and was ultimately what led to his untimely demise.

“On Dreams” is part of Aristotle’s Parva Naturalia, a collection of works on the phenomena of human life. In this treatise, he hypothesizes that we dream because our sensory organs continue to function while we sleep. He compares dreams to hallucinations - errors in our sense perception. Aristotle’s view of dreams influenced philosopher Thomas Hobbes and psychologist Sigmund Freud, and it continues to fascinate people today.

Cato the Younger was one of the many biographies documented by Plutarch in his series called Parallel Lives. Related to Cato the Elder, Cato the Younger was also a student of philosophy as well as a Roman Statesman. After his father died and he gained his inheritance, Cato the Younger began his life as philosopher, warrior, and political leader. His life ended, as so many Roman lives did back then, in tragedy.

Though his presidency was short-lived, the time at which Zachary Taylor was in power was a time of great exploration for the US and Great Britain. This treaty regarded the preference of passage through territories. Specifically looking at Nicaragua and territories in the southernmost part of Mexico, the treaty asked that the British not try to annex any part of these lands. Finally, he assured Great Britain that France and Spain were on the US’ side, and that failure to pay mind to it would be a blow on their side.

In 1807, Congress passed a law banning the import of slaves to the US. While many would break this law leading up to the Civil War, it still marked an incredible victory for abolitionists both black and white. Reverend Peter Williams delivered this speech the day the bill went into effect. In it, he gives thanks to God and all those advocating on behalf of the African American community.

In this message, Zachary Taylor addresses the state of two newly acquired territories - namely California and New Mexico. Essentially, he acknowledges that these territories are in need of governance and that until the establishment of these territories comes about that he is sending governance to them. However, he does address the right of the state - saying that it is necessary that the rights of statehood be understood should the territories choose to be states. Finally, he remits governance of those territories to his chosen governors and reverts to their judgement as to the rule of these new territories.

Daniel Webster gave this speech in honor of George Washington on the centennial of the first US president’s birth. In it, he praises Washington’s attributes and recounts his service to America. He states that Washington is a man “whose name is intimately blended with whatever belongs most essentially to the prosperity, the liberty, and the renown of our country”. In recounting the life and work of Washington, however, Webster’s speech also serves as a reflection on the past 100 years in American history and the birth of a great nation.

The Life of Aratus is one of the many biographies detailed in Plutarch’s integral work, Parallel Lives. In The Life of Aratus, Plutarch details the dynamic work done by the successor of Nicocles and talks about his advocacy to turn Greece into a united country. Working as a soldier first and then a diplomat, he fought for the betterment of his fellow countrymen. Disaster hit during his later reign, as it so often did, and though many wanted him dead, the great Oracle at Delphi had other plans.

The end of his first year in office marked a momentous time for the US - it was 60 years since the establishment of the country. However, the subsequent presidents, including President Taylor, did not forget the sting of past wars. In his first annual address, Zachary Taylor meets this time of peace with a challenge, saying that he hopes to continue this legacy of peace. Perhaps due to his background as a military man, this address was mostly meant to show the nation about the civility between the US and other nations after a particularly rocky start.

When it came to Athens and their leaders, few were as influential as the politician and Stratego Nicias. In Plutarch’s Parallel Lives, he documents the Peloponnesian War and other great achievements of the time through the life of Nicias. Most importantly, he helped negotiate peace after a decades-long war, which made him popular after an unsuccessful start in politics. However, after many years of political truces and actions, his life took a turn for the worse.

One of the more hotly contested lives documented in Plutarch’s Parallel Lives, the Life of Dion investigates the intense politics of the tyrant of Syracuse. Starting out in politics, he initially was one of Dionysus’ most trusted advisors. But after Dionysus expressed that he no longer wanted to be a tyrant, which went against the advisement of Dion, his most trusted advisor was banished.

With this address, US President James Monroe set a precedent for the nation’s foreign policy. In it, he stated that “The American continents...are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers.” Monroe established this doctrine in a time where most of Spain and Portugal’s colonies in Latin America had gained independence. From then on, the Old World and the New World would operate in separate political spheres, and any European interference in North or South America would be considered a threat against the US.

Theodore Roosevelt began this 1899 speech with his thesis: “I wish to preach, not the doctrine of ignoble ease, but the doctrine of the strenuous life.” He discusses how the many hardships of his life shaped him for the better. Roosevelt believed that if Americans wished to succeed in the world, they would need to embrace the virtue of hard work. He applied this same belief to foreign affairs, stating that America must establish itself as a powerful military force and exert this power when necessary.

The period known as the Avignon Papacy began in 1309, when Pope Clement V relocated the seat of papal power to Avignon, France. The French monarchy slowly gained control over the papacy during this time, and as they did, corruption and greed grew in the church. The troubadour and priest Raimon de Cornet staunchly opposed the Avignon Papacy for these reasons. He summarized his grievances in this noteworthy poem, in which he states, “I see the pope his sacred trust betray, / For while the rich his grace can gain alway, / His favors from the poor are aye withholden.”

In this speech, a young Theodore Roosevelt describes what he believes are the key principles to good citizenship. In addition to emphasizing ethical behavior, Roosevelt takes a firm stance on the necessity of engaging in politics and voting. He states unflinchingly, “The people who say that they have not time to attend to politics are simply saying that they are unfit to live in a free community.” To be “a good American citizen”, Roosevelt says one must boldly engage with the issues our nation faces today, and in doing so, shape its future.

Thomas Jefferson beat out Aaron Burr in the 1800 presidential election after Alexander Hamilton cast the tie-breaking vote. Jefferson gave this address to a packed Senate chamber on March 4, 1801. He emphasized the US as a single nation working together and avoided mentioning party politics. In this way, he departed from the speeches of his two predecessors and established a new formula for inaugural addresses that was used by many presidents who came after him.

Annie Besant made a name for herself as a women’s rights activist, socialist, and orator. Her first public speech, “On the Political Status of Women”, launched her into the field of advocacy around which she built a career.