10 - Variants in Other Countries. copertina

10 - Variants in Other Countries.

10 - Variants in Other Countries.

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 Variants in Other Countries. In Spain, the Falange Española emerged in 1933 under José Antonio Primo de Rivera as a fascist movement explicitly modeled on Italian Fascism, emphasizing national syndicalism, anti-parliamentarism, and a hierarchical corporatist economy to transcend capitalism and socialism. After merging with Carlists and other monarchists in 1937 during the Spanish Civil War, it provided ideological backbone to Francisco Franco's regime post-1939, though Franco subordinated its revolutionary zeal to conservative authoritarianism, retaining fascist symbols like the yoke and arrows until the 1950s. This variant adapted fascism to Catholic traditionalism and anti-communism, achieving electoral irrelevance after Primo de Rivera's execution in 1936 but influencing state corporatism and labor organizations under Franco until his death in 1975. Austrofascism, implemented by Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss from 1932 to 1934, represented a clerical-authoritarian adaptation banning both Nazis and socialists via emergency decrees in March 1933, establishing a corporatist Ständestaat modeled partly on Italian structures but prioritizing Austrian independence and Catholic social doctrine over racialism. Dollfuss's Fatherland Front unified conservative forces, suspending parliament and enacting concordats with the Vatican, yet his regime's resistance to Anschluss led to his assassination by Austrian Nazis on July 25, 1934; successor Kurt Schuschnigg maintained the system until the 1938 German annexation. Scholars note its fascist elements in one-party rule and suppression of dissent but distinguish it from Italian dynamism by its defensive, anti-Nazi orientation and lack of mass mobilization. In Romania, the Iron Guard (Legion of the Archangel Michael), founded in 1927 by Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, fused Orthodox mysticism with fascist nationalism, antisemitism, and paramilitary violence, gaining 15.6% of the vote in 1937 elections through rituals of martyrdom and economic boycotts targeting Jews. Briefly holding power in 1940 under Ion Antonescu, it orchestrated pogroms like the Iași massacre in June 1941, killing up to 13,266 Jews, before Antonescu purged it amid wartime failures. This "sacralized" variant emphasized spiritual revolution over secular totalitarianism, influencing post-communist ultranationalism despite its suppression by 1941. Portugal's Estado Novo under António de Oliveira Salazar from 1933 to 1968 incorporated corporatist institutions like the Grémios and anti-communist censorship, drawing partial inspiration from Mussolini's Italy, yet prioritized fiscal conservatism, colonial stability, and Catholic integralism over fascist expansionism or cult of personality. Salazar's regime avoided revolutionary rhetoric, maintaining neutrality in World War II and suppressing the fascist-inspired Blue Shirts by 1935, leading many historians to classify it as conservative authoritarianism rather than true fascism due to limited mass ideology and absence of palingenetic violence. Croatian Ustaše, formed in 1929 by Ante Pavelić, ruled the Axis puppet Independent State of Croatia from 1941 to 1945, blending fascism with Catholic clericalism and genocidal Croat supremacy, establishing concentration camps like Jasenovac where up to 100,000 Serbs, Jews, and Roma perished. Supported by Italian Fascists and Nazis, it enacted racial laws in April 1941 targeting Serbs for extermination or expulsion, reflecting a variant obsessed with ethnic purification over economic corporatism, collapsing with Axis defeat in May 1945. Relationship to National Socialism in Germany. National Socialism, as embodied by Adolf Hitler's regime in Germany from 1933 to 1945, emerged partly inspired by Italian Fascism, with Hitler citing Mussolini's March on Rome in October 1922 as a blueprint for revolutionary action that shaped his own failed Beer Hall Putsch in November 1923. Mussolini, however, initially dismissed early National Socialists as crude imitators tainted by residual socialist rhetoric and lacking genuine fascist discipline, blocking Nazi influence in Austria until the mid-1930s. Diplomatic ties strengthened after Hitler's 1933 rise to power, with Mussolini providing tacit support for German rearmament and the 1936 remilitarization of the Rhineland, evolving into the formal military alliance of the Pact of Steel, signed on May 22, 1939, which committed Italy and Germany to mutual defense and coordination in foreign policy. This pact facilitated joint Axis operations in World War II, though Italy's military unpreparedness—evident in its delayed entry into the war on June 10, 1940—strained the partnership, leading to German occupation of northern Italy after Mussolini's 1943 ouster. Core ideological divergences centered on race and state philosophy: Fascism prioritized the ethical state and national unity as transcendent forces, eschewing biological determinism, whereas National ...
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